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CHAPTER XI
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TONAL DISSOLUTION:  CONCLUSION
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	Musical %2meaning%1 is conveyed by particular uses of musical
conventions which are either known in advance and apply to a large body
of works, or are learned in the course of an individual work itself.
Evolution seems to be able to push forward the "known" conventions only
to a certain point -- then a revolution is necessary to make the final
break into an area where fresh nuances of expression are possible.
Try as they may, however, revolutionaries are never able to make a
complete break with their past.  Their most important accomplishment
is that they bring to the fore a reassessment of older values.  The
radical shift of emphasis seems to the casual observer like a complete
rejection of the status quo.  Indeed, at %2the%1 moment$$The length of
this "moment" depends on many factors -- especially the talents of the
individuals directly involved.$ of revolution a certain amount of chaos
seems to exist.  In this brief time it is common to find experimental
probes in every direction that seem to have little relation to each
other beyond the fact that they, in some striking fashion, are all
%2unlike%1 the immediate past.

	Eras of musical revolution are especially difficult
for the most gifted composers, because their audience cannot yet be
expected to have assimilated the significant elements of the musical
re-evaluation which these composers are guiding.  However, it is
inevitable (just so long as the new music %2is%1 actually performed)
that a "revolutionary" composer's audience will gradually become aware
of the salient features of the new style.  This is true because the
individual members of the audience are, after all, a part of the same
general musical culture as is the composer.  The %2bases%1 of his
musical thought, no matter what his creativity might add, are common 
to all the sophisticated members of his society.

	Many musicians have felt that the seeds of tonal dissolution
were present in the basic premises of functional harmony.  Once such
a form of tonality came into general use, the inherent possibilities
of significant relationships between tonalities were brought to the
fore.  The only convincing means of moving from tonic to tonic is
through the introduction of functional chromaticism.  But this process
is both constructive and destructive.  It establishes or emphasizes
new tonal centers and, in so doing, naturally undermines old ones.
Most often in tonal music the chromaticism is so applied as to throw
the balance strongly in the constructive direction.  That is, the new
tonics are supplementary in nature (even when the result of modulation)
and serve as massive elaboration of one basic tonic.  Already in the
middle of the 19th century, however, the midpoint of this balance was
being approached.  Without a great deal of motivic unity and the frequent
use of harmonic sequences, some of the music of that time might truly
have been as chaotic as a few of the contemporary critics believed it
to be.

	As more and more dramatic harmonic relationships were sought,
the more apparent it was that tonality, as the all-important unifying
force, was becoming inadequate.  The tonal center shifted so soon
and so often that it no longer provided a useful point of departure;
or (and even more important) the linear elements began to be combined
in such a manner as to create constant doubt concerning a specific
harmonic function at any given point.  As motivic values increased in
importance, the distinctions between functional versus non-functional
chromaticism and chord versus non-chord notes became arbitrary.  The
%2implications%1 of tonality replaced the %2reality%1 of tonality.
If new music was to retain its vitality, nothing was left at this point
but to call upon a new basic unifying concept.  The word "contextuality"
seems best to describe this concept as it exists in music that
is truly of the 20th century.
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	To greatly over-simplify the case, it might be said that the
early composers of this new music generally embarked on one of two
main routes.  These might be characterized by the terms "diatonicism"
and "chromaticism".$$By the middle of the 20th century, the distinctions
between these two types of composers were well on the way toward
vanishing.$  The "diatonic" composers (often of the "French" school)
tended to use unaltered tonal scales and chords built on thirds as 
their materials.  Chromaticism existed mainly in terms of juxtapositions
or combinations of diatonic units (polytonality), and although there
were many %2references%1 to conventional 
functional harmony, the %2particular uses%1
of the overall material were clearly the most important bases of 
unity.$$For very good examples of this style, see the piano pieces, %2Saudades
do Brasil%2, written by Darius Milhaud in the early 1920s.$  The
"chromatic" composers (mainly of the "German" school), on the other
hand, developed the idea of the freely existing %2motive%1.  The lines
containing such motives often resembled late 19th-century lines, but
when put in combination with one another, there was little pretense of
underlying chords built on thirds which might give clear definition to
specific tonic areas.  Any chord structure could be used
just so long as it had motivic value or proved to be no more than the
vertical result of several significant lines.  Here again, the %2use%1
of the material -- the %2context%1 -- was the main basis of organization.

	With the aid of examples from Musorgsky's %2Boris Godounov%1
(1874) and Wagner's %2Parsifal%1 (1882), we shall discuss some of the
problems which must be faced when analyzing the music which made these
early 20th-century "schools" possible.  Then we will conclude with a
discussion of excerpts from music representative of the end of tonal
evolution:  Debussy's %2Preludes for Piano%1 (c.1908) and the
%2Kammersymphonie%1, Op.9, (1906) of Schoenberg.

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	The greatly increased dramatic (in the literary sense) use of
music in the second half of the 19th century was a primary factor in
the rapid demise of functional harmony.  In the following excerpt from
%2Boris%1, Musorgsky creates "dream" music by at first avoiding the
clear "reality" of specific harmonic function.  There is also much
"tone painting" apart from the functional element.  The %2stepwise%1
staccato quarter-notes = a "long ... staircase".  The ascending
triads = "led me to a tower".  The low, rolling notes = "the crowd
(below) ... thronged the square".  The staccato sixteenths = "mocking
laughter".

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Example 112.  Musorgsky, Boris Godounov, Act I, Scene 1
			(Chester piano score, pp.49-50)
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	The staccato scale lines (bars 1-3, 4-5) fit in well with the
pseudo-modal procedures established from the beginning of the opera.
However, there are no direct functional relationships among the chords
which accompany these scales.  Unless one considers the lowering of
the leading tone as non-functional chromaticism (and there is no
particular reason for doing so here), there are no pivot chords.  Thus,
because of the whole step motion down from the root, each of these major
chords after the first one is most easily heard as dominant in function.
Note the tritone relations between the third of each chord and its
following weak-beat quarter-note.  But since the harmony does not return
to the point from whence it came, the resulting third relations lose
significance as elements which can contribute to any particular basic
tonic.

	The sequential nature of the passage makes its "form" easy to
grasp in %2spite%1 of the constant moving on to new places which tends
to negate the functional relationships.  In the following analysis of the 
first five bars, a basic tonic on the highest level seems superfluous
and so is omitted.  Control tonics are listed at the end points of the
phrase units, since they stand out in special relief.  At bar 4 we 
return to a ↓_I_↓ in the middle ground because we begin again from
an already heard chord.
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Figure 112a
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	At bar 6 it might be ventured that the "dream" begins to
become a "reality" for Gregory.  Here the functions are much clearer.
But as Gregory's narration reaches the description of the mocking of
the crowd, "reality" once more disintegrates -- into a chord structure
with a whole-tone potential.  The chord for bars 10 and 11 may be taken
as C-E-G%4S%1, with D and F%4S%1 as appoggiaturas.  One function this
chord can have is Vs of the a minor chord which comes in bar 14.
This notion gets some support from the fact that there are no bass
notes between the low E in bar 12 and the A-E fifth of bar 14.  The
functional connection between the augmented chord and the previous
music is quite weak.  With the enharmonic alteration of all flatted
notes in bar 9 we have chords which, with a charitable outlook, could
be considered as tonicizing the dominant of ↓_a_↓.
.begin verbatim

Figure 112b
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	On the other hand, it is more reasonable to take the F%4F%1 of
bar 9 as a chromatic passing note in an area which has strong
orientation toward ↓_b_↓%4F%1.  Then if we reverse our position on bar 10
and take E-G%4S%1 as neighboring notes to D-F%4S%1, the chord for 
that bar may be read enharmonically A%4F%1-C-E%4FF%1-G%4F%1, or the
altered dominant of ↓_D_↓%4F%1.  This is useful, since ↓_D_↓%4F%1 is
the control tonic which appeared at the end of Figure 112a.  The
elements of the possible ↓_a_↓ control tonic appear directly below
the analysis of the ↓_D_↓%4F%1 functions.  ↓_C_↓ becomes a new
and independent control tonic at the end of the excerpt.
.begin verbatim

Figure 112c
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	The ambiguity of many of the progressions in this excerpt
makes possible the derivation of many other dubious functions.  It
should be clear that the primary basis of organization in this
passage is hardly any longer functional harmony.  In the first five bars
the %2pattern of third relations%1 seems ascendent.  The particular
temporary tonics and their relationship to any basic tonic are
important only in that they continually lead %2away%1 from the
possibility of a simple functional return to the point of departure.
In bars 6 to 15 the %2interval of the third%1 is handled in a
broader fashion.  The bass at first descends by thirds, the fourth
leap being reserved for the phrase ending.  The highest part spans
the third A%4F%1-C twice, the C persisting as a pedal point from
bar 8 through to its tonic role at the end.  However, the fact that
chords such as those of the excerpt %2usually%1 do have functional
significance (and Musorgsky's audience certainly assumed this
intuitively) contributes greatly to the effect of the passage.

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	In %2Parsifal%1, Wagner has extended the technique of functional
ambiguity which we have studied in connection with %2Tristan und Isolde%1.
In our coming example from the opening of the Third Act of %2Parsifal%1,
we are placed in almost continual doubt as to the specific role of each
note.  It is the rule rather than the exception that notes may be heard
as both chord and non-chord tones at once.  Especially noticeable are
the long suspensions whose relative consonance often forms
independent chords with distant functions.  The very slow tempo leaves us
lingering on these "non-chord" chords, so that it is quite possible to
lose entirely the sense of harmonic direction.  And when we come to
know the music well enough to maintain our harmonic orientation, we
realize that the specific functions are hardly important and that
ultimately our sense of direction is preserved rather by our
understanding of the particular means of handling the functional 
ambiguity.

	The first of the analyses given below (Figure 113a) is based on the
slowest possible harmonic rhythm that may be heard in this music.
The functions given are those of the chords at the various points of
resolution.  It is only by studying the whole example carefully that
we can feel sure about just where the points of resolution really 
fall.  We are reasonably safe in assuming that all of Wagner's
functional chords will be based on thirds.  In addition, we must
realize that our diatonic-based system of notation is outmoded for
music like this and that enharmonic equivalence must always be taken
into consideration.  Proceeding with these things in mind, we see that,
from the broad point of view, the essential harmony changes no more
quickly than the time of a half-note -- and sometimes even more slowly
than that.  In the second measure, the leap in the bass makes both
parts of the tritone stand out as chord notes, the preceding G%4F%1(=F%4S%1)
being an upward-resolving suspension.  The soprano's E-F-B%4F%1 work
the same way, the pattern of half-note harmony with quarter-note
overall movement thereby being well established.

	  In two spots, the
traditions regarding leaps away from non-chord tones are stretched
somewhat.  At bars 5 and 8 the diminished octave skip in the bass
almost leads one to hear both notes of the interval as chord tones.
Then the chord formed by the suspensions above the low half-notes
would seem to have functional significance (see second analysis, 
Figure 113b).  However, when the upper three notes resolve, it becomes
clear that, in the largest sense, the diminished octave was merely
a displaced chromatic scale movement and that the substitution of a
sharp on the first note in each case (E%4F%1=D%4S%1, F=E%4S%1) would
make this clear -- to the eye at least.  These spots are further 
complicated because they represent a change in the manner of dealing
with this pattern of a long note moving to a short note on the next
degree, followed by a leap.  But when studying the music in terms
of most of the detail (Figure 113b), it is seen that several 
interpretations of this pattern are possible.
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Example 113.  Wagner, Parsifal, Act III, bars 1 to 11
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Figures 113a, b, and c.  Wagner, Parsifal, Act III, bars 1 to 11
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	Figure 113c sets forth the main elements of a possible interpretation
which is perhaps obscured by the details in the other two analyses.
The analysis in Figure 113b does not really give a clear
picture of how this music is finally heard.  If all these 
contrapuntally-achieved chords were really taken as functional harmony,
the music would be very difficult to follow in the tonal sense.  However,
once the "Wagnerian method" is understood, the factors shown in
Figures 113a and 113b stand out in their proper relief.

	These examples from Musorgsky and Wagner have shown us two
methods by which functional ambiguity may be created.  Something
of both methods were found in each example, but with Musorgsky it
was mainly a case of rapidly juxtaposing triads which contained
incompatible chromaticism and supported no single tonic.  With
Wagner it was mainly a case of using chromatic  counterpoint in such a way as
to give little hint in the details about the specific structure of
many chords -- thereby keeping most of the functions in doubt.

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	Almost all of Debussy's music is truly tonal, but in his later